The Role of Computer and Internet in Education

CHAPTER 5 THE INTEGRATION OF COMPUTER USE IN instruction JAN Department VAN hideout AKKER, PAUL KEURSTEN and TJEERD PLOMP of precept, University of Twente, P. O. The Netherlands pilfer Box 217, 7500 AE Enschede, on that point is an increasing aw argonness that thwart welcomes with the introduction of computing machines in preparation ar a consequence of insufficiently taking into explanation factors that ar decisive when introducing salmagundi in schedule lineal settings. legion(predicate) of the problems in the writings draw neat similarity with the kind of problems lots pay off in course of acquire writ of act.In this scope the endeavors to make electronic reckoner expenditure an incorporate part of naturalizeroom activities argon analyzed. way go forth be laid on the fundamental interaction mingled with instructors and courseware elements for a more in force(p) dodging for the integrating of electronic computing machine custom in educational activityal coiffure will be presented, with special attention to the pattern of aid materials as an essential part of courseware. interpolation Despite legion(predicate) content and local initiatives, examples of victorious information attend toing system social occasion in classroom perform are suave relatively rare. In umpteen countries the number of reckoners in conditions has considerably increased in recent years.However, little progress has been make still few instructors are actual subroutiners bundle example is often restricted to drill and normal figure the alignment with the course of instruction pattern is poor. explore results (of cardinal surveys and case studies) from many countries point to the conclusion that in that respect is still a massive appearance leading before computer usance will be effectively blendd in virtu entirelyy classrooms ( chit-chat e. g. Becker, 1986 part of engine room Assessment OTA, 1988, for t he USA, Chomienne, 1988 Olson & Eaton, 1986, for Canada Cox, 1987, for the U. K. Inspectorate, 1986 Plomp & parvenu wave hideout Akker, 1988, for the Netherlands).There is an increasing mindfulness that these disappointing construes are a consequence of insufficiently taking into account factors that are crucial when introducing qualify in educational settings. well-nigh(prenominal) of the reported problems that naturalises and instructors face when implementing computer wasting disease show great equality with the kind of problems often experienced in political program instruction execution (cf. Fullan, Miles, & Anderson, 1987 Sheingold, Martin, & Endreweit, 1987 Walker, 1986). For that reason we would care to analyze the endeavor to make computer drill an integrated part of classroom activities 65 6 .I. VAN den AKKER et al from a course of instruction implementation perspective. We shall start with an over interpret of the variables that foundation act upon t he exercise and outcomes of course of instruction implementation. For the dissimilar categories of those variables we shall then discuss the books on computer employ in education. Emphasis will be laid on the interaction between teachers and courseware. Based on this problem abbreviation we shall present elements for a more effective system for the consolidation of computer routine in the educational class period.Special attention will be salaried to the practice of (written) nurse materials as an essential part of courseware. An Over flock of Factors affecting execution _ Drawing upon the work of Fullan (1982) and of cutting edge Velzen, Miles, Ekholm, Hameyer, and robin redbreast (1985), we propose a framework for discussing factors influencing the implementation of re genesiss in the educational practice by distinguishing four categories of variables national (and/or state and/or district) context characteristics of the naturalizeing ( governance) immaterial keep back characteristics of the renewing itself.Within each family several(prenominal) variables evoke be mentioned National context aboriginal legislation and regulations governing dust of indemnity constitution and close making in educational personal business quantify, resources and facilities made usable for an diversity proclaimed set and aims most(predicate) an foundation garment attitude of politicians and ( just to the mettlesomeest degree opposite(a)) opinion leadership around an innovation. inculcate organization experiences with foregoing innovations constituent of the school leader(s) methods of decision making practiseable facilities (time, money, materials) ingrained co-operation and mutual support distribution and ex transmute of instruction.External support inservice rearing assistance with internal coaching and guidance personal contacts with staff development for individual teachers experts and colleagues from other schools. m ultifariousness characteristics rele wagon traince of the innovation for invites and problems of practicers limpidity of the goals and practical means of a change object implementation of reckoners in Education 67 mazyness of innovation requirements, especially in instruct lumber and practicality of the innovation harvest-homes. ehavior In the next pieces we shall first ingeminate literature on the consolidation of computer utilization, as far as it relates to the first three categories (national context, school organization, and external support). We intimate to those categories of variables as the conditionalfactors, because they are conditional for the ultimate use of products by teachers in their workaday work. Afterwards we shall focus our attention on the characteristics of the innovation product itself in relation to the teachers type.Conditional Which computer literature, emphasis Factors for the Integration of computing device phthisis research results nearly use in education? We but restrict ourselves on semiempirically found conditional factors batch be found in the literature on do not intend to offer an exhaustive overview of this to a compendium of some aimed publications, with an sources. National Context Still little empirical research is done about the impress of variables in the national (state/district) context on the actual use of computers in the school practice.Descriptions of national policies on information engineering science in many countries are available (e. g. Beishuizen, Tobin & Weston, 1988), but focused research efforts in this sphere are hard to find. Broad attention for policy variables is given by Fullan et al. (1987) in their study on the implementation of the new information engine room in Ontario schools. Apart from obvious tasks as investing in hardware, computer computer software development, research, teacher fosterage and the like, policy makers should as well play a stimulating go vernment agency in the mean and co-ordination of implementation activities.Proclamation of new aims for the educational system and encouragement from above for initiatives and activities in the field arsehole be helpful for the many participants in the innovation. School Organization The influence of the school organization on the implementation of computer use has been studied more a great deal. The results comm unless confirm the findings from the more familiar innovation literature. Encouragement and support from school administrators and principals are of snappy importance (Carmichael, Burnett, Higginson, Moore, & Pollard, 198. Cox, Rhodes, & Hall, 1988 Fullan et al. , 1987). Help from principals is especially necessary in providing for facilities for instruct, the bargain for of hardware and software, the rearrangement of timetables and other organisational measures. overly conducive to the implementation suffice is a lordly school climate where teachers give mutual support by exever-changing ideas and experiences and by providing feedback (Carmichael et al. , 1985 Cox, 1987 Inspectorate, 1986). 68 J. VAN retreat AKKER et al.A beneficial role shadower as well as be played by computer coordinators, especially if they mix computing expertise with strong interpersonal and organisational skills (Strudler & Gall, 1988). Also measures wee-wee to be mete outn to apprehend long term supplies and maintenance of hardware and software (Bitter & Gore, 1986 Wagshal, 1986). External Support A growing body of experience and research data has become available about effective atoms of inservice training and other forms of external support for schools and teachers in the use of computers.A criticism on past inservice onrushes is that the emphasis on good aspects was too strong, while too little attention was paid to the integration of computer use in the e reallyday classroom practice and as well as to the skills in selecting and evaluating coursewa re homienne, 1988 DArcy & Gardner, 1988 Wiske et al. , 1988). teachers need a strong support to get well their (initial) problems of uncertainty and their concerns about changing teacher/ pupil relationships and about accountability (OTA, 1988).There is a growing consensus about characteristics of inservice training that can increase its effectiveness (OTA, 1988 Stecher & Solorzano, 1987) take into account balance between lecture and (guided) practice expatiate course of instruction guides and plans for the course plus lesson-related materials and hand-outs clear training objectives inservice lessons linked to teachers own instructional practice friction match interaction, including communication during hands-on activities strategies for inform heterogeneous groups r evaluation support and guidance. This (selective) literature review indicates a fractious imilarity between conditional factors for two integration of computer use and syllabus implementation. Future, more foc used, research activities are necessary to sharpen our insights in this area. Product Characteristics and the Teachers Role Educators and educational researchers consistently deferred payment one factor as central to the exuberant development of technologys use in the schools the classroom teacher (OTA, 1988, p. 87). For that reason it is important to take a closer look at the changes cladding teachers at the implementation of computer use in their classroom practice.As Fullan (1982) has pointed out, nearly every innovation requires teachers to change on several dimensions the use of new materials, alterations in their precept behavior, and changes in their beliefs and attitudes. In this section we deficiency to explore how certain characteristics of the new materials (especially courseware) can influence changes in instruction behavior and beliefs. From the general innovation literature we know that at that place are several product characteristics that can influence the fat e of a certain innovation. First, we present a brief overview of this literature.Then we shall use this as a filter to screen the literature on computer use in education. Implementation of Computers in Education 69 Well-known discourses about influential (product) characteristics of innovations are delivered by Rogers and Shoemaker (1971) who disembowel features like observability, building complexity, compatability, and relative ad cutting edgetage, and by Doyle and Ponder (3977-78) who push to the practicality ethic of teachers, with criteria like instrumentality, congruence, and cost. An authorative summary of these characteristics is provided by Fullan (1982 mold also Fullan et al. , 1987).He mentions the issue forthing characteristics, elucidated by some central questions Need and relevance What is the need for and the appropriateness of the change? What is the priority of the efforts to implement the innovation relative to other concerns? Clarity How clear are the goals an d essential features of the innovation? practical implications for the users? Complexity How clear are the How many components of instructional practice are affected and how over more do they differ from existing practices and beliefs? How difficult is it to fall upon the necessary changes? Quality and practicality How well developed and tried are the products?How certain is the repair of the innovation? What is the tradeoff between the actual benefits and the personal and organizational cost? Weaknesses in one or more of these characteristics usually cause major obstacles for implementation. Fullan (1982, p. 62) underlines the importance of individual perceptions in this respect ImpIementation is a problem of individuals developing meaning in relation to specific policy or program directions. Although materials alone can never be sufficient for the implementation of innovation proposals by big target groups of teachers, the potential influence of materials is great.Well desig ned and vafidated products can contribute substantially to the realization of educational changes (Crandall and Associates, 1982 Emrick & Peterson, 1978 Van den Akker, 1988). We proceed now with a short(p) overview of research findings about the interaction between product characteristics and teachers in the domain of computer use. Courseware Quality and Teachers Problems There is a wide dissatisfaction about the pure tone of educational software and courseware (OTA, 1988). Some conclusions are Much educational software is isolated material, badly attuned to the curriculum 0 J. VAN lair AKKER et al (content, materials, strategies) in use (Inspectorate, 1986 Woodhouse & Jones, 1988). Often computer use cannot be a process of simply incorporating new into old, but it requires reshaping what was there (Hawkins & Sheingold, 1986). But also a warning is in place if the software closely relates to the existing curriculum, it can indeed be easier for the teachers to use, but then it is o ften seen as just an extra and not to the full integrated in the day to day practice (Cox, 1987).Thus, software should either support the goals of the existing curriculum or meet the needs for a curriculum change (Mallatratt, 1988). Much software has been developed for use by individual students, not taking into account the usual whole-class teaching and the practical constraints of a classroom with limited numbers of computers (Centre for educational Research and Innovation CERI, 1986). This restriction places a considerable demand on the planning and management skills of teachers. Much software is seedy documented (Jorde, 1985). User guides contain mainly technical information about operational aspects of the software.Support (print) materials for the teacher with suggestions how to integrate the program in the instructional process is frequently privationing (Inspectorate, 1988). Most software does not to that extent sufficiently exploit the capacity of the computer to util isation and practice software continues to enhance teaching and acquirement. . tower all theatre of operations areas (OTA, 1988, p. 122). Furthermore, much of the early generation of software can be characterized by the test Syndrome (Mackey, 1987). An innovation which appears to bring just one long question-answer routine gets a bad name.The available educational software covers only parts of the different landing field theme domains (Inspectorate, 1988) most software is just bit by bit (Williams & Williams, 1984). The lack of sufficient tall quality materials obstructs the integration of computer use into the daily practice. Problems many teachers experience are the following For various reasons it is difficult to select suitable software. no. only is software often poorly documented, but also many teachers lack the knowledge and skills for an effective evaluation of the software quality (Knupfer, 1986 Preece & Jones, 1985).Moreover, there are only limited possibilities to see potentially useful software before purchase (Balla, Gow, & Burton, 1986 Mallatratt, 1988). Teachers often lack technical skills in development computers and software (CERI, 1986 Ridgway et al. , 1984). This often leads to uncertainty, especially when the level of computer familiarization of the teacher is the same as or plane lower than that of the students (Carmicheal et al. , 1985 Heywood & Norman, 1988). A consequence of this phenomenon whitethorn be that educational computing will be restricted to the limited level of expertise of the teacher.Teachers often experience unanticipated problems with their instructional roles (Carmicheal et al. , 1985 Cuban, 1986 Hawkins & Sheingold, 1986 Wiske et al. , 1988). Computers challenge teachers existing instructional routines by requiring a shift from expository teaching towards a role in which the teacher is more of a partner and guide of the students. Many teachers shade uncomfortable about these changes and therefore try to de crease them (Elder, Gourlay, Johnstone, & Wills, 1987 Olson, 1988 Plomp, Steerneman, & Pelgrum, 1988). This factor is particularly Implementation f Computers in Education 71 important because research has shown that the way a teacher integrates computer use through with(predicate) his ongoing instructional decisions is tiny to the impact of computer use on assimilators and learning results (Wilson, 1988). Cox et al. (1988) sustain that teachers frequently lack knowledge and skills for effective arousal of students microcomputer activities, and thus children fail to learn what they power learn with judicious teacher intervention. Teachers experience many practical problems when they start to use computers (Carmicheal et al. 1985 Elder et al. , 1987 Inspectorate, 1986). Computer use demands from teachers many time-consuming management and organizational activities. Wiske et al. (1988) conclude that the major barrier for computer use is that it is unclear for teachers how the pot ential contribution of computer use can outweigh the costs involved. In summary we whitethorn conclude that the research on the integration of computer applications in education reveals many similar problems as described in the literature on curriculum implementation (cf. Fullan et al. 1987). Most factors that influence curriculum implementation also influence the integration of computer use in the instructional practice. An Infusion climb for the Integration of Computer Use In this section we will try to identify elements of an effective strategy for the integration of computer use in education by analogy reasoning with border ones of effective curriculum implementation. Most teachers, if they are utilize computers at all, are still inexperienced users the great majority are in the initial implementation soma.In this academic degree venial flourishing experiences are an important factor in stimulating the use of the innovation by teachers, both in the field of curriculum imp lementation (Van den Akker, 1988b) and computer integration (Fullan et al. , 1987). There are two components of successful experiences first, the students attain clear learning results second, the teacher succeeds in an effective lesson execution without major problems, and is aware of his own contribution in this respect.Such successful experiences can only take place when teachers commence high quality courseware at their disposal. We define courseware as a package comprising computer software and (mostly written) support materials. Since our compendium of implementation problems indicated that especially the support materials if available are of a poor quality, we shall focus on that component (lessonware) of the courseware.In order to identify high quality characteristics, we need to clarify what functions the materials should have for the teacher. Functions and Characteristics of Courseware As shown in the preliminary sections, integration of computer use by teachers is co mplex and involves them in learning new roles and unlearning old ones. Implementation can be 72 J. VAN DEN AKKER et al. conceived as a learning process for the teacher in which changes are required in teaching behavior as well as in beliefs, attitudes and understanding.A literature review of Van den Akker (1988b, c) on curriculum implementation, teacher planning, and general learning theories provides some answers to the question of how materials can contribute to this learning process of teachers in their initial implementation phase. The literature on curriculum implementation reveals that in teachers initial implementation efforts personal self-concerns dominate, changing via more task-oriented concerns to concerns about the impact of the curriculum on learners (Loucks & Lieberman, 1983).Research indicates that this change model also applies on computer integration (Cicchelli & Beacher, 1985, 1987 Wiske et al. , 1988). Thus, at present, where most teachers are still in the initia tion phase where personal survival concerns dominate, courseware materials should support the teachers by anticipating as much as possible potential user problems and by offering practical advice to prevent or solve much(prenominal) problems.From research on teacher planning (Clark & Peterson, 1986) it has become more evident that changing the practice of teaching requires more attention to the stage of pre-active planning. The lesson planning approach is of crucial importance for the lesson execution, and, ultimately, also for learning-by-reflection of the teacher afterwards. Literature on general learning theories indicates that (intensive) orienting activities yield more precise and heavy plans for action.Courseware may activate and support teacher planning by providing a clear orientation to the teaching task, by pointing to critical features of (computer assisted) lessons and by making suggestions about how to deal with emergent problems during the instructional process. From this analysis we may conclude that courseware, intended for teachers initial use, should contain a large amount of adjective specifications very surgical how-to-do-it advice focused on essential but apparently vulnerable elements of the curriculum.This means that the support materials should not only contain technical information about the use of the computer program, but also detailed advice about the instructional process (cf. Fullan et af. , 1987). With the help of such materials, the teachers should be stimulated to a task orientation and to concrete role-taking experiences and should be supported with practical advice for successful lessons. In order to produce such courseware, one has to follow a very careful development approach, with much attention for formative evaluation and revision of the materials.Obviously, the technical certainty of the software must be guaranteed and the program should be easy to use (Fullan et al. , 1987). Special efforts have to be made to det ect teachers problems with the use of the courseware in their classroom situation. These evaluation findings should lead to the incorporation of procedural suggestions for the teachers in the support materials about how to prevent or solve such problems. It depends desirable that the development of the software and the support materials (lessonware) proceeds in close interaction.More or less simultaneous design, construction and evaluation activities can further the interwoveness of the different courseware components. Such an approach may also increase the chances to produce courseware that is innovative from an instructional and curricular perspective (cf. Hawkins & Sheingold, 1986). Implementation of Computers in Education 73 An Illustrative Study An explorative study along these lines has been done by Keursten (1988), who developed courseware for immemorial intuition.He pointed out that there is a remarkable resemblance between major implementation problems of teachers with a new approach in (activity-based) science education and the earlier discussed problems with the integration of computer use. Van den Akker (1988a, b) mentioned the following key problems for teachers in the science domain complex and time-consuming lesson preparation a lack of priming knowledge and skills (causing a lack of self- self-assurance) great difficulties in changing the didactical role insufficient view of possible learning outcomes.In the research project of Van den Akker (1988a, b), a successful effort was made to diminish these problems by providing teachers with many, conservatively tested procedural specifications in curriculum materials. Keursten (1988) applied the same split up of specifications in courseware for a series of seven lessons (on the write up weather final grade of main(a) school), to be used by teachers who had neither experience with computer use nor with an activity-based science approach.The courseware package consisted of written lesson materi als containing subject matter information and directions for lesson preparation and execution educational software with a very succinct manual about its operation and some student materials. The procedural specifications for the package were divided over the written lesson materials (lessonware) and the software manual. In the lessonware the following categories were incorporated i general characterization of the series of lessons in terms of objectives, content, time (also division of time over different lessons), suggestions for spying learning effects. ackground information about the subject matter so that it is not necessary for the teacher to refer to other sources during the lesson preparation. Per lesson were included a short abbreviation of the lesson suggestions for the lesson preparation, including issues like necessary learning aids, classroom organization, social organization of the lesson in keywords, personal preparation by the teacher. guidelines for lesson execut ion with suggestions for instructional activities, for classroom organization, and for guidance of the students.The manual of the computer program consisted of directions for the use of the computer (especially important for teachers without experience with computers) description of the objectives (short, because it is also part of the written lesson materials) directions for the use of software (important, as it must answer all possible questions teachers may have in using the program) points of attention about the siting of the computer(s). 74 J. VAN DEN AKKER et al. Two basic elements in the design approach should be underlined.First, the curricular perspective was in the headspring the computer software was developed as a tool for realizing the formulated curriculum aims. Second, the primary election focus in the elaboration of the materials was on the tasks and user problems of the teachers and not on the possibilities of the software. An evaluation of the use of this co urseware with pentad teachers had validatory results. The teachers were able to use the package as meant by the designers. They hardly experienced any technical problems and adequately know the activity-based science approach.Also the reactions and learning outcomes of the students were very satisfying. A general conclusion of this study was that the characteristics of the courseware seem very appropriate to reduce implementation problems. Therefore follow out research has been started for further investigation of this approach. Conclusion The integration of computer use in the instructional practice of teachers infusable support materials (cf. Wilson, 1988). We would like to summarize our infusion approach as follows benefits by eachers can start their computer use with short and well organized applications successful use is strongly advanced by carefully designed and validated procedural specifications in the different courseware components based on these successful experience s, teachers acquire clearness about the meaning and potential of the innovation, gain confidence in their own competence, and develop their own view of the appropriateness of the innovation for their students and themselves. Without such early high quality experiences, teachers judgments about the relevance and practicality of computer use can only be superficial.As Wiske et al. (1988) found, the initial reservations of teachers about computer use diminish after experiencing examples of computer use that yield clear educational benefits. A real integration of computer use in the curriculum can only be realized when teachers recognize the surplus value of computer use. Successes in the early implementation phase are crucial for motivating teachers to further activities and to elicit commitment to the change efforts. We have strongly concentrated our arguments on the role of products (courseware) in the process of implementation.Of course we realize see the first part of our article that there are many other variables at stake. But we couple with Collis (1988) that it makes sense to focus on those variables which are relatively easy to manipulate. And, within the then available options, we have strong indications that a sophisticated design of the support materials within courseware can have a great impact on implementation activities and outcomes. 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